Everything about Language Contact totally explained
Language contact occurs when speakers of distinct speech varieties interact. The study of language contact is called
contact linguistics.
Multilingualism has likely been common throughout much of
human history. In
tribal hunter-gatherer societies, multilingualism was common, as tribes need to communicate with neighboring peoples. In present-day areas such as
Sub-Saharan Africa, where there's much variation in language over short distances, it's usual for anyone who has dealings outside their own town or village to know two or more languages.
When speakers of different languages interact closely, it's typical for their languages to influence each other. Languages normally develop by gradually accumulating dialectal differences until two dialects cease to be
mutually intelligible, somewhat analogous to the
species barrier in
biology. Language contact can occur at
language borders, between
adstratum languages, or as the result of
migration, with an intrusive language acting as either a
superstratum or a
substratum.
Forms of influence of one language on another
Borrowing of vocabulary
The most common way that languages influence each other is the exchange of words. Much is made about the contemporary borrowing of
English words into other languages, but this phenomenon isn't new, nor is it even very large by historical standards. The large-scale importation of words from
Latin,
French and other languages into English in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was more significant. Some languages have borrowed so much that they've become scarcely recognizable.
Armenian borrowed so many words from
Iranian languages, for example, that it was at first considered a branch of the
Indo-Iranian languages, and wasn't recognized as an independent branch of the
Indo-European languages for many decades.
Borrowing of other language features
The influence can go deeper, extending to the exchange of even basic characteristics of a language such as
morphology and
grammar.
Nepal Bhasa, for example, spoken in
Nepal, is a
Sino-Tibetan language distantly related to
Chinese, but has had so many centuries of contact with neighboring
Indo-Iranian languages that it has even developed noun
inflection, a trait typical of the
Indo-European family but rare in Sino-Tibetan. It has absorbed features of grammar as well, such as verb tenses.
Romanian was influenced by the
Slavic languages spoken by neighboring tribes in the centuries after the fall of the
Roman Empire, not only in vocabulary but also in
phonology and morphology. It is easy to see how a word can diffuse from one language to another, but not as obvious how more basic features can do the same; nevertheless, this phenomenon isn't rare.
Language shift
The result of the contact of two languages can be the replacement of one by the other. This is most common when one language has a higher social position. This sometimes leads to language endangerment or
extinction.
Substratal influence
However, when language shift occurs, the language that's replaced (known as the
substratum) can leave a profound impression on the replacing language (known as the
superstratum), when people
retain features of the substratum as they learn the new language and pass these features on to their children, leading to the development of a new variety. For example, the Latin that came to replace local languages in present-day
France during
Roman times was influenced by
Gaulish and
Germanic. The distinct pronunciation of the
dialect of
English spoken in
Ireland comes partially from the influence of the substratum of
Irish. Outside the
Indo-European phylum,
Coptic, the last stage of ancient
Egyptian, is a substratum of
Egyptian Arabic.
Creation of new languages: Creolization and mixed languages
Language contact can also lead to the development of new languages when people without a common language interact closely, developing a
pidgin, which may eventually become a full-fledged
creole language through the process of creolization. A prime example of this is
Saramaccan, spoken in
Suriname, which has vocabulary mainly from Portuguese, English and Dutch, but phonology and even tones which are closer to African languages.
A much rarer but still observed process is the formation of
mixed languages. Whereas creoles are formed by communities lacking a common language, mixed languages are formed by communities fluent in both languages. They tend to inherit much more of the complexity (grammatical, phonological, etc.) of their parent languages, whereas creoles begin as simple languages and then develop in complexity more independently. It is sometimes explained as bilingual communities that no longer identify with the cultures of either of the languages they speak, and seek to develop their own language as an expression of their own cultural uniqueness.
Mutual and non-mutual influence
Change as a result of contact is often one-sided.
Chinese, for instance, has had a profound effect on the development of
Japanese, but the Chinese language remains relatively free of Japanese influence, other than some modern terms that were reborrowed after having been coined in Japan. In
India,
Hindi and other native languages have been influenced by English up to the extent that loan words from English are part of day to day vocabulary. In some cases, language contact may lead to mutual exchange, although this exchange may be confined to a particular geographic region. For example, in
Switzerland, the local
French has been influenced by
German, and vice-versa. In
Scotland, the
Scots language has been heavily influenced by
English, and many Scots terms have been adopted into the regional English dialect.
Linguistic hegemony
Obviously, a language's influence widens as its speakers grow in power.
Chinese,
Greek,
Latin,
French,
Spanish,
Arabic,
Persian,
Sanskrit,
Russian, and
English have each seen periods of widespread importance, and have had varying degrees of influence on the native languages spoken in the areas in which they've held sway.
Dialectal and sub-cultural change
Some forms of language contact affect only a particular segment of a speech community. Consequently, change may be manifested only in particular
dialects,
jargons, or
registers. The
South African dialect of English has been significantly affected by
Afrikaans, in terms of
lexis and
pronunciation, but English as a whole has remained almost totally unaffected by Afrikaans. In some cases, a language develops an
acrolect which contains elements of a more prestigious language. For example, in
England during a large part of the
Medieval period, upper-class speech was dramatically influenced by French, to the point that it often resembled a French dialect. The same situation existed in
Tsarist Russia, where the native
Russian language was widedly disparaged as barbaric and uncultured.
Sign languages
Language contact is extremely common in most
deaf communities, which are almost always located within a dominant
spoken language culture. It can also take place between two or more sign languages, in which case the expected contact phenomena occur — lexical borrowing, foreign "accent," interference, code switching, pidgins, creoles, and mixed systems. However, between a sign language and a spoken language, while lexical borrowing and code switching also occur, the interface between the spoken and signed modes produces unique phenomena:
fingerspelling, fingerspelling/sign combination, initalisation,
CODA talk,
TTY conversation, mouthing and
contact signing.
Further Information
Get more info on 'Language Contact'.
|
External Link Exchanges
Do you know how hard it is to get a link from a large encyclopaedia? Well we're different and will prove it. To get a link from us just add the following HTML to your site on a relevant page:
<a href="http://language_contact.totallyexplained.com">Language contact Totally Explained</a>
Then simply click through this link from your web page. Our crawlers will verify your link, extract the title of your web page and instantly add a link back to it. If you like you can remove the words Totally Explained and embed the link in article text.
As long as your link remains in place, we'll keep our link to you right here. Please play fair - our crawlers are watching. Your site must be closely related to this one's topic. Any kind of spamming, dubious practises or removing the link will result in your link from us being dropped and, potentially, your whole site being banned. |
